A Review on Schistosoma haematobium Infection in Nigeria: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Life Cycle, Diagnosis, Prevention and Control

Abstract

Schistosoma haematobium is the predominant species responsible for urogenital infections and one of the major causes of Schistosomiasis, a major neglected tropical disease of public health importance in Nigeria. Globally it was estimated that 20 million people are infected and requiring preventive chemotherapy annually and over 90% of global cases are found in sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigerian, some states are classified as hyperendemic (>50% prevalence), moderately endemic (10–50%), or low endemic (1–10%).  This review provides an updated overview of the epidemiology, risk factors, life cycle, diagnosis, and challenges in control of S. haematobium infection in Nigeria. It bears the highest global threats of schistosomiasis, with millions of individuals at risk, particularly in limited-resource settings and underserved communities where access to clean water and sanitation is limited. The transmission dynamics are associated with environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral risk factors. The intermediate hosts of this parasite are freshwater snails of the genus Bulinus spp. The life cycle of S. haematobium involves the miracidia, sporocysts, and cercariae, which facilitate human infection through skin penetration during contact with contaminated water. Clinical manifestations of S. haematobium range from acute symptoms to chronic complications. Diagnosis is based on urine microscopy for egg detection, serological examination, molecular, and imaging techniques are also used in low-intensity infections. Despite ongoing control efforts, including mass drug administration (MDA) with praziquantel, schistosomiasis remains endemic due to challenges such as reinfection, inadequate treatment coverage, poor health infrastructure, and limited public awareness. Integrated control strategies, but not limited to chemotherapy, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions, snail control, and health education are essential for sustainable disease reduction and control. Other approaches in the control of Schistosoma haematobium should also include vaccine development and genetic interventions targeting parasite transmission. Policy implementation should be strengthened, and the surveillance system improved.