Green-synthesised Nanoparticles for Gastric Ulcer Therapy: Mechanistic Promise, Preclinical Evidence and Translational Barriers

Abstract

Gastric ulcer treatment is clinically effective when the causal pathway is identified and managed, yet antibiotic resistance, incomplete mucosal recovery, recurrent injury and treatment-related burden continue to motivate adjunctive strategies. Green-synthesised nanoparticles are produced using biological reducing, capping or templating agents, including plant extracts, microorganisms and biomass-derived precursors. Their proposed value in gastric ulcer therapy arises from the convergence of antimicrobial, urease-inhibitory, antibiofilm, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and mucosa-protective actions within a single nanoscale platform. This critical narrative review evaluates evidence available from 1 January 2010 to 25 May 2026, with foundational literature included where necessary. PubMed/MEDLINE, PubMed Central, the Directory of Open Access Journals, Crossref metadata and DOI records were searched, supplemented by backward and forward citation checking and retraction screening. The evidence base is dominated by in vitro studies against Helicobacter pylori and short-term rodent models of ethanol-induced gastric injury. Plant-mediated silver nanoparticles, biosynthesised copper oxide systems, gold nanoparticles, selenium nanoparticles and biomass-derived carbon dots frequently reduce microbial growth, urease activity, oxidative damage and inflammatory signalling. Several formulations also improve mucus, prostaglandin-related defence, histological integrity and selected microbiota outcomes. Nevertheless, efficacy is difficult to compare because synthesis conditions, particle size, phytochemical corona, dose expression, comparator treatment and outcome definitions vary substantially. Most animal studies test prophylaxis against acute chemical injury rather than healing of established human-like ulcers, recurrence prevention or eradication-confirmed H. pylori disease. Safety claims are weakened by limited chronic toxicology, uncertain gastric transformation, inadequate biodistribution data and occasional reliance on tumour-cell cytotoxicity as a surrogate for biocompatibility. Green synthesis therefore describes a production route, not an assurance of safety or clinical effectiveness. The most defensible near-term perspective is targeted adjunctive use, especially for local antimicrobial delivery or mucosal retention, rather than replacement of guideline-based acid suppression and H. pylori eradication. Translation requires standardised physicochemical characterisation, disease-relevant models, pharmacokinetic and toxicological programmes, and controlled clinical trials with endoscopic healing and confirmed eradication endpoints.