Bacteriological Quality of Domestic Water Sources and Household Sanitation Practices in a Tin Mining–impacted Settlement in Jos, Nigeria

Abstract

Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) remain critical public health challenges in low-income and environmentally degraded communities. This study assessed household sanitation and hygiene practices alongside the bacteriological quality of domestic water sources in Twanchik community, a tin mining–impacted settlement in Jos, Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey of 100 randomly selected households collected data on WASH using a structured questionnaire, while 50 water samples were analyzed for total heterotrophic bacterial counts (THBC) and fecal coliform counts (FCC) using membrane filtration, with bacteria species identified using conventional microbiological procedures. Results revealed suboptimal WASH conditions, including toilet sharing (45%), open defecation (21%), indiscriminate waste disposal into streams (68%) and open areas (26%), limited handwashing facilities (16%), and handwashing frequency (52%). Of the households, 63% lived in private residences and 37% in shared compounds, with 53% comprising 1–5 occupants. Livelihoods of residents were mainly trading (34%) and 46% had attained secondary education. Water sources varied seasonally: protected wells dominated the dry season (65%), while rainwater harvesting (42%) and wells (52%) were primary in the rainy season; 58% of households did not treat water. Residents reported dissatisfaction with water availability (60%) and access (68%), and noted seasonal changes in taste (72%), color (45%), and odor (25%). Bacteriological quality of water sources revealed elevated THBC (1.40 × 10² ± 7.39 × 10¹ CFU/100 mL (control) to 9.75 × 10² ± 4.50 × 10¹ CFU/100 mL (spring water) and FCC from 1.80 × 10¹ ± 5.83 × 10⁰ to 1.95 × 10² ± 3.50 × 10¹ CFU/100 mL, exceeding WHO limits. Escherichia coli (36.5%) predominated, followed by Klebsiella spp. (18.8%) and Enterobacter spp. (14.1%). These findings indicate substantial deficiencies in WASH and bacteriological quality of water sources, driven by both behavioral practices and environmental constraints. Therefore, improved WASH practices and environmental remediation are integrated interventions required to reduce risk of waterborne disease infections in the mining-impacted settlement.