Air Pollution and Human Health: A Comprehensive Narrative Review

Abstract

Air pollution is a major environmental and public-health concern associated with substantial adverse effects on human health and ecosystems. This narrative review synthesises evidence concerning the principal sources and categories of air pollutants, their reported health effects, vulnerable populations, geographical patterns, and available mitigation approaches. Major pollutants considered include particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀), nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds originating from transport, industrial activities, fuel combustion, household sources, and natural events. The reviewed evidence indicates associations between exposure to these pollutants and respiratory disorders, cardiovascular disease, neurological effects, cancer, and adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes. Children, older adults, pregnant women, individuals with pre-existing illnesses, and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations may experience greater exposure or susceptibility. Air-pollution patterns and associated health burdens vary geographically according to industrialisation, urbanisation, emission sources, regulatory frameworks, and socioeconomic conditions. The review further considers policy interventions, cleaner fuels, urban planning, catalytic converters, industrial emission-control technologies, indoor air purification, public education, and community participation as approaches to pollution mitigation. Persistent challenges include uncertainties regarding long-term low-level exposure, emerging contaminants, unequal exposure, economic constraints, and implementation barriers. Overall, coordinated regulatory, technological, monitoring, research, and community-level approaches are required to reduce pollutant exposure and support effective air-quality management.