Digital Exclusion in Agriculture: A Global Review of Barriers and Government Initiatives for Bridging the Rural–Urban Digital Divide in Developing Countries

Abstract

The rapid expansion of digital technologies has rekindled optimism about the prospects for transformative agricultural development in low- and middle-income countries. Yet the benefits of this transformation have not been equitably distributed: rural farming populations—who account for a substantial majority of the world's food-insecure households—remain disproportionately excluded from the digital tools, platforms, and information services that are reshaping modern agriculture. This review critically examines the multi-layered barriers sustaining digital exclusion in agricultural settings and evaluates the government and institutional initiatives designed to advance a more equitable digital transition. Drawing on peer-reviewed scholarship and authoritative institutional literature published between January 2015 and March 2026, supplemented by foundational earlier studies, the review identifies five interconnected categories of barrier: infrastructure and connectivity deficits, socioeconomic constraints, digital literacy and skills gaps, gender-based exclusion, and linguistic and cultural impediments. National digital agriculture strategies, regional policy frameworks, and public–private partnerships are assessed for their effectiveness and limitations. Case evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and Latin America reveals that targeted interventions have produced measurable outcomes in specific contexts, whilst systemic inequities in access, capability, and agency persist. The review finds that current policy approaches have too often treated digital inclusion as a technocratic challenge solvable through connectivity expansion alone, neglecting the social, economic, and institutional conditions that determine whether digital tools translate into meaningful welfare improvements for smallholder farmers. Future research should prioritise longitudinal evaluations, gender-transformative approaches, and co-designed investigations in smallholder farming contexts.