Functional Diversity, Ecological Services, Anthropogenic Threats and Restoration Perspectives of Wetland Macrophytes

Abstract

Wetland macrophytes contribute to freshwater ecosystem structure and functioning through habitat provision, nutrient assimilation, sediment stabilisation and contaminant removal. This narrative review examines the functional diversity, ecological services, major threats and restoration approaches associated with emergent, submerged, floating-leaved and free-floating aquatic plants. Drawing on literature reviewed for the period 1978–2026, it synthesises evidence on macrophyte contributions to biodiversity, food-web support, water purification, hydrodynamic regulation and carbon-related ecosystem processes. The review identifies cultural eutrophication, reduced light penetration, biological invasions, herbivory, sediment bioturbation, chemical contamination, altered hydrology and climate warming as important pressures on macrophyte communities. Submerged species are particularly vulnerable to declining water clarity and unstable sediment conditions, whereas some emergent and free-floating species may persist under nutrient enrichment. The reviewed restoration approaches include reducing external and internal nutrient loading, restoring hydrological connectivity, stabilising substrates, establishing native vegetation, managing invasive species and reducing grazing or benthivorous fish pressure where appropriate. Their effectiveness depends on local water quality, environmental conditions, propagule availability and the functional traits of planted species. Particular attention is given to tropical wetlands, for which evidence from temperate systems may require careful contextual interpretation. The synthesis highlights the need for integrated macrophyte–sediment–microbe research, standardised ecological assessments and long-term monitoring to support context-specific wetland conservation and restoration.