Geology of Energy Resources: A Comprehensive Scientific Review of Conventional Ore Systems and Emerging Energy Materials

Abstract

Energy-resource geology is undergoing significant change as global energy systems shift from conventional fossil-fuel dependence towards low-carbon technologies and critical mineral supply. This review examines the geological controls, deposit types, exploration approaches, and sustainability challenges associated with both conventional energy resources and emerging energy materials. Conventional resources, including coal, petroleum, natural gas, and uranium, are discussed in relation to sedimentary basin evolution, organic matter preservation, hydrocarbon migration, structural trapping, redox processes, and hydrothermal activity. The review also considers the growing importance of lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, graphite, vanadium, rare earth elements, and natural hydrogen in supporting batteries, electric vehicles, renewable-energy infrastructure, energy storage, and hydrogen-related technologies. The synthesis indicates that tectonic setting, sedimentary processes, magmatic differentiation, hydrothermal fluid flow, structural deformation, and supergene enrichment are major factors controlling the formation and distribution of energy-related resources. Modern exploration methods, including remote sensing, geographic information systems, geophysical surveys, geochemical analysis, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and three-dimensional geological modelling, are increasingly important for improving mineral targeting and resource assessment. However, expanded extraction of both conventional and critical resources is associated with environmental and social challenges, including land degradation, water contamination, mine waste generation, biodiversity loss, carbon emissions, and supply-chain vulnerability. The review emphasises that future energy security will require integrated geological understanding, responsible mining practices, circular economy approaches, recycling, environmental safeguards, and improved resource governance. Overall, the study highlights the continuing relevance of geological sciences in supporting sustainable energy-resource development during the global energy transition.