Microbial Association Across Distinct Plant Components: Influence of Environmental Factors and Adaptation Mechanism

Abstract

Interactions between plants and microbes date back to the earliest stages of Earth’s history, and these relationships remain fundamental components of the planet’s biosphere. Microbes play essential roles in plant development by contributing to nutrient acquisition, metabolic processes, and, in some cases, pathogenesis. Plant–microbe interactions are typically classified according to plant tissues: the rhizosphere, the phyllosphere, and the endosphere. Each zone is shaped by distinct environmental factors—while the rhizosphere is influenced by diverse microbial communities and soil conditions, the phyllosphere is exposed to above-ground environmental fluctuations, and the endosphere is governed by the plant’s internal environment and defense mechanisms. This review highlights these interaction processes and examines how microbes establish relationships at different plant sites under varying environmental conditions. Understanding these primary interaction mechanisms provides a foundation for studying the complex dynamics of plant–microbe associations.